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The MRN complex is formed by the interaction of the products of the Mre11, Rad50 and Nbs1 genes. This complex plays a central role on repair of double-strand breaks (DSBs) and acts in a great number of cellular processes. In this study we have performed the analysis of the MRN complex in diploid and polyploid species of wheat. The molecular characterization was carried out in the diploid T. monococcum (genome A) and Ae. tauschii (genome D) and in the tetraploid T. turgidum (genomes A and B). The results obtained showed that in all cases the genes presented the main characteristics previously described in other species. A modified FISH protocol was used to locate the Rad50, Mre11 and the Nbs1 genes on the homoeologous chromosomes 5, 2 and 1, respectively. Analysis of expression showed that the hexaploid T. aestivum was the species with the higher level of expression whereas the rest of the species analysed showed no relation with its ploidy. Also, quantification of the expression of each homoeologous gene in the polyploid species evidenced in some cases a process of silencing after polyploidization. The study of the interaction between the proteins demonstrated that the interaction of proteins was not restricted to each genome, detecting interaction between proteins belonging to different genomes.

The leaf spotting disease complex is a major biotic constrain in enhancing grain production in the major wheat growing regions. Two leaf spotting diseases, tan spot, caused by an ascomycete fungus Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, and Stagonospora nodorum blotch besides causing average yield losses of 5-10%, cause significant losses in grain quality by red smudge, black point and grain shriveling. Conservation agriculture in combination with wheat monoculture involving cultivation of susceptible cultivars has resulted in frequent onset of leaf spots epidemics worldwide. Development of resistant wheat cultivars, in conjunction with crop rotation, will provide an effective, economical, and environmentally safe means of controlling leaf spot. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico has initiated major efforts to mitigate the threat of tan spot. Efforts include screening of wheat germplasm, identification of new sources of resistance, characterization of new tan spot resistance genes through classical and molecular genetic analysis, incorporation of resistance into adapted cultivars, and assessing the variability in the tan spot fungus. Screening studies reveal that elite CIMMYT germplasm has high level of resistance to tan spot caused by P. tritici-repentis race 1. These germplasm have diverse genetic make-up and the resistance is likely broad based. Association mapping studies done with CIMMYT germplasm reconfirmed the presence of previously identified genomic regions for tan spot resistance; however, novel genomic regions on long arm of chromosomes 6A and 7B have also been identified. Studies done to date indicate that CIMMYT germplasm possess high level diverse genetic based resistance to tan spot of wheat. Efforts are in place to develop desired wheat cultivars with tan spot resistance. Virulence studies indicate presence of P. tritici-repentis race 1 only with some variability in level of toxin Ptr ToxA produced in each of the 76 isolates studied.

Reactions of winter triticale cultivars mostly from central Europe to recent and old leaf rust isolates were tested in the greenhouse. In one trial 20 cultivars were tested with 8 leaf rust isolates, collected recently from official wheat and triticale trials in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In another trial 15 cultivars were tested with 6 old leaf rust isolates, used to identify leaf rust resistance genes in wheat. The cultivars Cando, Hortenso and Tricolor, registered in the Czech Republic, were resistant to the majority of the recent isolates. The Hungarian cultivar Tatra was resistant to all the recent isolates. The old leaf rust isolates were virulent only to a few of the triticale cultivars. Randomly selected isolates from wheat and triticale were tested on triticale cultivars and on Thatcher near isogenic lines with different Lr genes. On average, leaf rust isolates from triticale were virulent to a higher number of triticale cultivars than isolates collected from wheat and vice versa.

It is estimated that world-wide existing germplasm collections contain about 7.5 million accessions of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Wheat (Triticum and Aegilops) represents the biggest group comprising 900 000 accessions. However, such a huge number of accessions is hindering a successful exploitation of the germplasm. The creation of core collections representing a wide spectrum of the genetic variation of the whole assembly may help to overcome the problem. Here we demonstrate the successful utilisation of such a core collection for the identification and molecular mapping of genes (Quantitative Trait Loci) determining the agronomic traits flowering time and grain yield, exploiting a marker-trait-association based technique. Significant marker-trait associations were obtained and are presented. The intrachromosomal location of many of these associations coincided with those of already identified major genes or quantitative trait loci, but others were detected in regions where no known genes have been located to date.

By 2008, twelve localities had been investigated. At each location we assessed the degree of threats to the wild grapevine. Flowering plants were seldom found. The plants found were localized geographically, and 149 vines were described using the characteristics of shoot types and leaves, using the O.I.V. descriptor list. Morphological differences of the leaf shape, hair or bristle density are high. A few seeds which were found in dry black berries are much smaller in size than the seeds of Vitis vinifera ssp. sativa. From plants that were easily attainable, cuttings were taken with the objective to multiply the Vitis sylvestris and to establish an ex situ collection. In 2008, we repeated the procedure with 54 vines. The state of health of the vines in situ is very good. No fungal diseases were visible, and mites occurred only rarely. In the nursery, some plants were contaminated by mildew.

Changes in the law have allowed Czech vintners to produce land wines from some ancient varieties. There is the chance now for the reintroduction of such varieties, when we can clearly explain the pros and cons of these varieties in comparison with the common varieties; plus be able to indicate the possible benefits for those vintners who start to plant these ancient varieties. The successful reintroduction of these ancient varieties could enlarge the selection of wines for sale, and represents an alternative way of storing genetics resources, similar to on-farm conservation.

Resistance of 31 winter wheat varieties (bred in 6 European countries) to Fusarium head blight (FHB) was evaluated in field trials lasting for three years (2007, 2008, 2009) after artificial inoculation with Fusarium culmorum. The data on deoxynivalenol (DON) content were supplemented by symptom scores and determination of % of Fusarium damaged grains and % reductions of thousand-grain weight and grain weight per spike due to infection. These varieties and also 120 advanced breeding lines from the Úhřetice Breeding Station, SELGEN company were examined for the presence of gibberellic acid (GA) insensitive semi-dwarfing genes to evaluate their effect on FHB. The conditions of experimental years highly influenced the performance of all characters. The highest production of DON occurred in 2008 at a high temperature and high moisture content during the infection period. In all years the moderate resistance to accumulation of DON (at the level of Swiss variety Arina) was detected in the Czech varieties Bakfis, Federer, Baletka, Samanta and Sakura. Among these varieties, Federer showed a low accumulation of DON at a relatively higher symptom expression and greater reduction of grain weight per spike, but the other four varieties and the reference variety Arina expressed resistance in all the examined traits. The varieties Pitbull, Cubus, Kodex and Bagou were found to be highly susceptible to FHB. The presence of the dwarfing allele Rht-D1b resulted in a significantly higher mean symptom score and also in a higher affection of the other traits. Nonetheless, the analysis of frequency distributions in symptom scores showed the presence of resistant lines also among the GA insensitive lines, but with a lower frequency than in the group of GA sensitive genotypes. A relatively greater effect on manifestation of the disease had plant height, and therefore it is suggested that the adverse impact of Rht-D1b on FHB resistance could be to a high degree excluded by opting for taller Rht-D1b genotypes.

The must characteristics of some old varieties (present on the list of varieties allowed for land wine making) were compared with their commercial relatives, in order to estimate their specific benefits and advantages for wine processing. In the case of Portuguese blue and Pinot noir pr飯ce, we additionally identified the influences of environmental conditions on their must composition and wine quality. Clear differences in sugar accumulation among varieties were detected, as well as differences in earliness.

To assess the different origins of Portuguese grapevine varieties, we used six nuclear and four chloroplastidal microsatellites as molecular markers, in order to compare the genetic structure of native wild-vines with native grapevine varieties. Both native subspecies have a great diversity, and a high interrelationship across the six nuclear microsatellites. Although identical numbers of alleles were found in each population, their distribution was different in the vinifera and sylvestris subspecies. Portuguese wild-vines have only chlorotypes A and B; A being the most frequent. The fifty-seven analysed Portuguese varieties have chlorotypes A, B, C, and D. The most frequent was the chlorotype A (75%), followed by D (21%). The results obtained reinforced the idea of Western Europe as having been one of the domestication centres for the grapevine, with contributions from the Eastern European gene pool. The observed genetic structure is a starting point from which to clarify the high number of native cultivars found in Portugal, and reinforces their probable origin in the Iberian Peninsula.

The German Federal Gene Bank at the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) in Gatersleben comprises ca. 148 000 accessions of crop plants and their wild relatives. Among these, material from Albania and Greece is represented with ca. 1100 and more than 2700 accessions, respectively. IPK's collection of Albanian germplasm is the world's largest collection, while IPK's Greek germplasm collection is the third largest holding of Greek crops and their wild relatives. The largest part of this material (ca. 200 and 1600 accessions from Albania and Greece, respectively) originates from two collecting expeditions carried out by Hans Stubbe, the founder of the Institute for Cultivated Plant Research, and other German collectors during the Second World War, in 1941 (ca. 700 accessions) and 1942 (ca. 1100 accessions). Stubbe's expeditions are described with respect to the regions visited, species collected, plus a comparison between the original collections and their present state in the IPK Gene Bank is provided. A formal scientific report about the results of these expeditions had never been published before. The material from these expeditions can be freely requested from the IPK Gene Bank, after signing a Material Transfer Agreement.

An isolate of Brome mosaic virus (BMV) was originally isolated from Agropyron repens and maintained in Hordeum vulgare. The full-length genome of this isolate (BMV-CZ) was sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that BMV-CZ shared a minimum of 95.6% sequence identity, localized in the 5'-UTR of RNA-1 with the other BMV isolates from the database, and a maximum of divergence of 30.8% with Broad bean mottle virus localized in the 5'-UTR of RNA-3. This is the first sequence report of full-length BMV from the Czech Republic.

A survey of Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris (Gmeli) Hegi in Portugal has revealed the existence of wildvine populations that occur only in riparian wood habitats on river margins, as is the case for other European populations. The genetic diversity of four populations has been evaluated using nuclear and chloropastidial microsatellites as molecular markers. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), showed that most of the genetic diversity was attributable to differences among individuals within populations. Only 7% of the total variance was attributable among populations; suggesting the existence of a low level of population differentiation. Chloroplastidial microsatellites revealed the expected situation for the Iberian Peninsula, (i.e. the presence of only chlorotypes A and B; with chlorotype A as the most frequent within the wild-vine populations). The diversity obtained is a starting point for the management and conservation of wild-vines in situ and ex situ. Several measurements have to be taken to maintain their natural habitat, and in order to preserve its diversity.

Seventeen winter wheat cultivars registered in the Czech Republic were tested for reaction to common bunt in 2-3 year field trials. Bunt infection of resistant checks Globus and Bill varied between 4.1% and 10.6%; the highest infection in cv. Pitbull reached 85.9%. Of the recently registered cultivars Nikol has a relatively low bunt incidence (26.9%). In addition to bread wheat seventeen triticale, seven durum wheat cultivars, two spelt wheat cultivars and one emmer wheat cultivar were tested in the field and some of them also in the greenhouse. Bunt infection of durum wheats was lower than that of bread wheat cultivars. All seventeen tested triticale cultivars were resistant. The reaction of emmer wheat cultivar and spelt wheat cultivars to common bunt was lower than that of susceptible bread wheat checks.

In situ conservation is considered as conservation of wild biota in the natural habitat (locality). The authors extend the term to cultivated fruit species naturalised in the landscape, such as occasional spontaneous seedlings, and planted material such as old solitary trees among fields, old groves, avenues (country lanes), wind-breaks, and abandoned remnants of orchards. In situ conservation is also used to mark unique materials during collecting expeditions, before they will be taken as ex situ or proclaimed as permanent in situ. Important landraces found within 12 regions of the Czech Republic were registered, evaluated, and in situ localised by Global Positioning System (GPS). The following accessions were marked for in-situ conservation: apple (401), sweet cherry (263), pear (91), plum (42), sour cherry (27), and berry fruits (18).

In former Czechoslovakia, grass breeding was located in the three distinct regions of Southern Bohemia and Northern Moravia during the 1920's; and later in Slovakia in the 1940's. This resulted in the development of 45 cultivars of 17 grass species which originated from local ecotypes and were named after the place of their breeding (e.g. Táborský, Větrovský, Rožnovský, and Levočský). Most of these historical cultivars were not preserved in any national germplasm collection, and the number of missing accessions amounted to 27 of the 34 deleted varieties. Using the findings about unpreserved materials of Czechoslovak origin in the European Central Crop Databases, as well as the EURISCO web catalogue, it was possible to repatriate 7 historical cultivars (Arrhenatherum elatius Větrovský, Festuca pratensis Větrovská, Festuca rubra Rožnovská, Lolium perenne Táborský, Phleum pratense Větrovský, Poa nemoralis Rožnovská, and Poa pratensis Levočská) from the gene banks of the neighbouring European countries. The accessions were regenerated, and their seed has been stored ex situ in the Gene Bank of the Crop Research Institute in Prague.

The proportions of landraces in the Czech collection of wheat genetic resources significantly differentiates among wheat species, 4.2% in bread, 77.6% in emmer, and 80.0% in the einkorn wheat collections. A set of 10 selected emmer wheat landraces has been characterized by high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GSs). They were evaluated for 3 years in field trials, and described by grain quality parameters. Emmer wheat accessions differ considerably in the polymorphisms of HMW-GSs. Out of the total of 10 studied emmer wheat landraces, 5 accessions appeared to be homogeneous in the electrophoretic patterns of HMW-GSs; they were formed by a single glutenin line. Much higher crude protein content was detected in all of the emmer wheat accessions, in comparison with the control bread wheat cultivar. The proportion of this important component varied between 15.5% and 22.2%. On the other hand, SDS sedimentation, an important parameter of bread making quality, was very low (1.2-4.4 ml); and a similar situation has been recorded in the gluten index. Based on such results, the emmer wheat landraces can be considered potentially more suitable for other purposes than for the preparation of bread (e.g. for different grain mixtures, purée, etc.).

A triennial evaluation of the content of titratable acids (TA) in grain was carried out on 12 varieties of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). The model variety, Mironovskoe 94, harvested in 2004, was used for the monitoring of sensory changes in TA content, in relationship to different storage conditions and the application of different grain processing methods. The Czech state norm (CSN 56 0512-9 1995) Determination of Titratable Acids, with a slight modification, was used as the standard method. The TA contents in dry matter varied between 39 and 78 mmol/kg of grain dry matter, and significant differences between varieties and experimental years were found. The method of proso millet processing had a key role in the final sensitivity to rancidity. The storage conditions had a much lower influence on TA content than the processing technology. The clearly detected sensory changes found in scoured grains corresponded with TA contents within the range of 90 to106 mmol/kg. The monitoring of the TA content can be considered as a suitable tool for the prediction of rancidity processes in millet grains.

Conservation of crops is based on ex situ collection into gene banks. Additionally, crop's wild relatives can be conserved in situ, and landraces and obsolete cultivars also can be conserved using the on-farm method. The definition and methodology of on-farm conservation is discussed. On-farm conservation has been set up in the Czech Republic as model examples in several institutions dealing with nature protection, education, cultural conservation, as well as by some private farmers. Problems, plus positive and negative experiences are presented. On-farm conservation in open-air-museums in the natur (skansens) as well as in the national parks, seem to be suitable ways forward for the Czech Republic.

Meadow grassland communities were monitored in situ in the region around the town of Bansk᠂ystrica (Central Slovakia) over the 2008 growing season. The botanical compositions were determined at the sites listed in NATURA 2000 (Donovaly, Tajov, and Priechod). The respective site coordinates were determined using a Global Position System, and then put on the digital map of the Google server. A range of rare, endangered, and protected plant species were found at the monitored sites (e.g. Gymnadenia densiflora, Lilium bulbiferum, Lilium matragon, and Stipa joannis).

The paper gives information about both the genesis, and a survey of, the descriptors used for the documentation of plant genetic resources held in ex situ crop collections. The first international documentation standards were developed by the FAO in the 1950s. In 1974, a specific body for plant genetic resources, the IBPGR (International Board for Plant Genetic Resources), was established within the FAO. Since the 1970s, the descriptor lists for main crop collections have been developed, including passport descriptor sets. For the most part, the passport descriptors were common to all crops, with only slight differences. In 1997, the first attempt to create a standard set of descriptors resulted in 24 passport descriptors developed by FAO and IPGRI (International Plant Genetic Resources Institute) working in cooperation. In 2001, the official Multi-Crop Passport Descriptor list (MCPD) was published, including a revised standard set of 28 descriptors. The European ex situ crop catalogue (EURISCO) enlarged the standard set of passport descriptors by adding 6 additional fields in 2002; and another 2 new descriptors were added in November of 2008. A global level of data compatibility is preferred; therefore projects aimed at world-wide utilization and standardization of systems, such as GRINGlobal, and Accession-Level Information System (ALIS), are supported.

The composition of high molecular weight (HMW-GS) and low molecular weight (LMW-GS) glutenin subunits was examined in a collection of 86 Czech registered winter wheat varieties. These proteins were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. An inter-varietal polymorphism of the HMW and LMW glutenin subunits was detected. Twenty-one different patterns for HMW were identified, and eighteen for the LMW-glutenins. The different alleles encoded at the six glutenin loci were determined. Three, six, and four alleles were observed, respectively at the Glu-A1, Glu-B1, and Glu-D1 loci (encoding high HMW-GS). Three, eight, and three alleles of LMW-GS were found, respectively, at the Glu-A3, Glu- B3, and Glu-D3 loci. The evaluated varieties were split into four categories of baking quality, and these variety groups were analyzed for the presence of different HMW-GS and LMW-GS alleles. While the alleles Glu-B1c (7+9), and Glu-D1d (5+10) were detected exclusively in bread wheat varieties, the alleles Glu-B1d (6+8), Glu-D1a (2+12), and Glu-A3e/f only occurred in those varieties that are not suitable for bread-making.

Multiplex PCR was developed and optimized for simultaneous detection of wheat leaf rust resistance genes Lr26 and Lr37. The presence of the genes was analyzed in 21 winter wheat cultivars registered in the Czech Republic. Gene Lr37 was detected in four tested cultivars (Bakfis, Biscay, Nicol, Mulan), gene Lr26 occurred only in one cultivar (Etela) and three cultivars (Clarus, Orlando and Rapsodia) were found to carry both these genes. Data obtained by PCR markers were compared with results of greenhouse and field tests. Seedling reactions of cultivars possessing Lr26 to seven different leaf rust isolates conformed to the results obtained by the marker analysis, however, there were found some discrepancies in the detections of Lr37, which could be detected in greenhouse seedling tests only with difficulties.

Four on-farm plantations (KRNAP Vrchlabí, the Orchard of Reconciliation in Neratov, Podyjí National Park, and Šumava National Park) were successfully established in a traditional form, with large orchard trees on seedling rootstocks. Certain accessions (cultivars) for on-farm conservation in the given locality were selected, according to the incidence and presentation of genotypes in these particular areas. This information was obtained by localization of fruit trees in situ and the determination of certain cultivars. Nursery stock production for onfarm plantations is described. Because of the longevity of the plantation, seedling rootstocks were used for the production of planting materials for the on-farm plantations. Techniques of on-farm plantation establishment and orchard management are stated within the paper. Four established on-farm plantations have ensured the long-term preservation of landraces in their original areas.

The results from monitoring of two endemic species of Uzbekistan flora are shown. The first species examined was Otostegia bucharica B. Fedtsch. (Lamiaceae). This is an endemic species of Uzbekistan which is critically endangered. The second focus of this research was Thesium minkwitzianum B. Fedtsch. (Santalaceae), also an endemic species of western Tien Shan, that grows in the territory of the Chatcal Reseserve.

Astragalus excapus L. and Astragalus austriacus Jacq. are regarded as critically endangered species in Slovakia. They are threatened by environmental impact, natural succession, as well as by human activities. Monitoring them is an important tool in determining their status and in making management decisions for their protection. In this contribution, a summary of the basic terrain endeavours, current status, locality and species description, habitat preferences, possible threats, current protection, and management activities are presented.

In 2005, 2006 and 2008 the virulence of wheat leaf rust population was studied on Thatcher near-isogenic lines with Lr1, Lr2a, Lr2b, Lr2c, Lr3a, Lr9, Lr10, Lr13, Lr15, Lr17, Lr19, Lr21, Lr23, Lr24, Lr26 and Lr28. Samples of leaf rust (141 in total) were obtained from different parts of Slovakia. Resistance gene Lr9 was effective to all tested isolates except three isolates from 2008. No virulence was found to Lr19 and genes Lr24 and Lr28 were also highly effective. Low incidence of virulence to Lr2a was observed. Sixty-five winter wheat cultivars registered in Slovakia were tested with seven leaf rust isolates in the greenhouse. Cultivar Bona Dea was the most resistant of all.

Two sets of winter wheat landraces and obsolete cultivars were studied in three-year field experiments, and compared with 3 modern control cultivars. The higher spike productivity in modern cultivars could mainly be attributed to an increased number of grains in a spikelet and harvest index (HI), whereas thousand grain weight (TGW) has only a slight effect. Landraces and old cultivars proved to have a higher content of crude protein. Spike productivity characteristics, except for TGW, showed a negative correlation with the crude protein content in the grain. The number of kernels in a spikelet strongly affected the spike's productivity, whereas the TGW has only half the effect. The mean yield of four modern cultivars was 51% higher than the mean yield of 31 landraces and obsolete cultivars. Regression analysis proved the much stronger response of modern cultivars to environment (b = 1.63), then was the response of old cultivars (b = 0.87). Different responses to environments were found within the set of 31 landraces, as well. We could also identify potentially valuable donors of earliness and winter hardiness among the old cultivars. High crude protein content (up to 18%), and other valuable quality characteristics, were rather frequent. In both sets, HMW Glu-subunits were described, and we have additionally studied 67 selected lines. Among them, 10 lines showed the crude protein content of 17.5% to 18.3% (where the gluten index and Zeleny test varied from 28.5 to 54.0 and 36.8 to 61.7, respectively). High values of all quality characteristics showed lines gained from the cultivars Mindeszentpusztai (HUN), Szekacz 19 (HUN), Bartweizen linie a (AUT), Viglašská červenoklasá (CZE), as well as some others.

Khorassan wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum Jakubz em. A. Löve & D. Löve) is an ancient tetraploid wheat that was grown in the Mediterranean region and Near East. Sixteen lines differing in the composition of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMWGs) were evaluated for SDS-sedimentation volume and quality index (QI). The data suggested that the two subunit combinations detected in the examined materials at the Glu-B1 locus showed differences in both characteristics (relatively higher levels at the presence of the subunit combination 7+15 compared to 6+8). Weak gluten is in general characteristic of this wheat species. It could be used in a better way for other baking applications than for the pasta industry.

The genetic diversity of 140 accessions of Triticum turgidum ssp. carthlicum Nevski em. A. Löve & D. Löve and 159 accessions of T. turgidum ssp. polonicum L. em. Thell. was evaluated by the analysis of HMW glutenin subunits. Seven allelic variants were found among the carthlicum accessions: three at the Glu-A1 locus (two of them were novel alleles) and four at the Glu-B1 locus (one of them novel). More variability was found among the polonicum accessions with 16 allelic variants: six at the Glu-A1 locus (three of them novel), and ten at the Glu-B1 locus (five of them novel). Totally, ten new alleles were found, one of which appeared in both subspecies. Out of 19 different combinations of alleles detected in both subspecies, 14 were novel. Based on the available passport data, the carthlicum accessions could be separated by origin into 18 groups, and the polonicum accessions into 33 such groups. The genetic diversity was lower among the carthlicum (Ht = 0.174) than among the polonicum accessions (Ht = 0.562). In both subspecies, most diversity was present between groups differing in origin, whereas diversity within the groups was very low. The detected variability offers possibilities for the improvement of bread making quality in durum wheat through introduction of newly detected alleles and for the broadening of genetic diversity in this wheat species.

The review focuses on recent progress in the breeding of small grain cereals (barley, wheat, oats) for resistance to the barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV). First, the symptomatology of barley yellow dwarf (BYD) disease is briefly described and the genome of BYDV, its serotypes and mechanisms of its replication and translation in host plants are characterized. Great attention is paid to the description of resistance genes and sources of BYDV resistance that are currently used in some breeding programmes of barley, wheat and oats. In barley, the introduction of the Ryd2 gene into high-yielding cultivars is still desirable. An example of recent success reached in a European programme aimed at a pyramiding of resistance genes is the registration of the Italian feeding barley cultivar Doria, carrying resistance genes Ryd2, rym4 and Rdg1. The release of this cultivar resulted from the cooperation between EICR, Fiorenzuola d'Arda and CRI in Prague-Ruzyně in the field of virus resistance. Finally, some experiments employing transgenic techniques in the construction of resistant plants are mentioned. In conclusion, the advantages and disadvantages of classical breeding methods using crossing and transgenic techniques are compared and newly arising approaches are discussed.